• Online Exclusive Article Archive

The Legacies of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force

Influences on Brazil’s National Defense Agenda

 

Col. Rodrigo de Almeida Paim, PhD, Brazilian Army

 

Download the PDF

 

Together we of the Fifth Army, including the illustrious Brazilian Expeditionary Force, won a great victory which united us by bonds welded in blood. This happy friendship is bound to prove a lasting one

—Gen. Lucian King Truscott Jr., Commander of the Fifth Army

 

The participation of the Força Expedicionária Brasileira (Brazilian Expeditionary Force, or FEB) in the Italian Campaign (1944–1945) during World War II stands as one of the most significant moments in Brazil’s military and diplomatic history. The deployment of over twenty-five thousand Brazilian troops to fight alongside the Allies in Europe represented a watershed moment in the modernization of Brazil’s armed forces and a pivotal step in affirming the country’s strategic alignment with democratic nations.¹ The FEB’s contributions in battles in the Serchio, Rhine, Panaro, and Po River Valleys demonstrated Brazil’s commitment to collective security and showcased its military forces’ professionalism.²

In 2024, eighty years after the FEB’s entry into World War II, its historical legacy remains central to the national defense agenda, influencing Brazil’s strategic culture, military doctrine, and international relations.³ The FEB’s role offers valuable lessons on preparedness, interoperability, and the importance of global partnerships.⁴

This article examines how the FEB’s participation in the Italian Campaign continues to shape Brazil’s national defense policies. It emphasizes the campaign’s ongoing influence on military professionalization, leadership, cultural legacy, defense industrialization, and Brazil’s international standing. Specific contemporary examples illustrate how the FEB’s legacy informs Brazil’s approach to security challenges, ensuring its relevance in today’s strategic environment.⁵

This article used qualitative methods as the basis for a literature review of documents, papers, academic works, books, and general products on various websites of public and private institutions, both civil and military, to answer the research question of this work: How did the FEB’s wartime experience influence Brazil’s military professionalization, geopolitical and strategic role, defense industrialization, and international cooperation structures?

Historical Context and the FEB’s Role in World War II

The decision for Brazil to join the Allies and deploy the Brazilian Expeditionary Force to the Italian Campaign emerged as a strategic maneuver within a broader geopolitical context. Axis submarine activity in the South Atlantic threatened Brazil’s economy and infrastructure, which was tied to coffee exports and dependent on maritime trade.⁶ Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas negotiated support with the United States, culminating in the 1942 agreements that included military aid in exchange for airbases in northeastern Brazil.⁷

The FEB faced significant challenges in its preparation and initial deployment, from inadequate equipment to skepticism about its capabilities.⁸ However, the force’s resilience and determination in the face of these challenges were genuinely inspiring. The FEB distinguished itself in key engagements such as the battle of Monte Castello, the major victory of FEB in the Apennines region, and the battle of Montese, the bloodiest and final Allied offensive in the Italian Campaign.⁹ The conquest of Montese marked the beginning of the spring 1945 offensive in Italy.¹⁰

The FEB’s participation in the Allied victory marked a turning point for Brazil’s military, exposing its armed forces to the realities of modern warfare and creating a lasting institutional memory. Integration with Allied forces exposed Brazil’s military leadership to the complexities of multinational operations, logistical planning, and combined arms employment. The FEB’s participation in Operation Encore with the U.S. 10th Mountain Division was revolutionary for a military previously focused on Brazil’s internal security.¹¹

Military Professionalization and Institutional Reforms

One of the most significant lessons from the FEB experience is the importance of military readiness. Brazil entered World War II with limited military capabilities, and the FEB’s initial difficulties highlighted the dangers of neglecting defense investments.¹² The need to rapidly modernize, train, and equip forces became a defining challenge for the FEB.

Today, this lesson is reflected in Brazil’s ongoing efforts to maintain its armed forces in constant readiness to fulfill its constitutional missions.¹³ The Brazilian armed forces’ strategic projects provide an excellent example of how it is meeting the country’s strategic demands.¹⁴ These strategic projects drive the transformation of the armed forces and prioritize investments in technology, mobility, and troop readiness to deal with emerging threats such as cyber warfare and transnational crime organizations.¹⁵

The FEB also demonstrated the importance of adaptability in the face of war’s challenges. Operating in Italy’s rugged terrain required Brazilian forces to develop innovative tactics and logistical solutions.¹⁶ This adaptability is now a cornerstone of Brazil’s military doctrine, particularly in its approach to unconventional threats such as drug trafficking and environmental crimes in the Amazon region.¹⁷

The deployment of the FEB during World War II introduced advanced operational techniques to the armed forces, including air-ground coordination, motorized infantry tactics, and strategic logistics management.¹⁸ Upon returning to Brazil, FEB veterans assumed significant leadership roles and advocated for sweeping reforms. These reforms included the establishment of the Esco la de Comando e Estado-Maior do Exército (Brazilian Army Command and General Staff School), which modeled its curriculum on Allied training programs.¹⁹

Eighty years after fighting with the Allies and defeating of Nazi fascism, Brazil still understands the importance of security and defense issues; this mindset resulted in the publication of the National Defense Policy and the National Defense Strategy in the 2000s.²⁰ FEB veterans, many of whom rose to leadership positions, were instrumental in promoting professionalization and modernization within the armed forces; for example, Marshal Castello Branco served as operations officer of the Expeditionary Infantry Division (the FEB) during the war and was subsequently elected president of Brazil in 1964. ²¹

Integrating the FEB into the Allied command structure underscored the value of interoperability in modern warfare. Brazilian forces had to learn to operate alongside troops of the IV Corps, under the command of Gen. Willis D. Crittenberger; Fifth Army, commanded by Gen. Mark Wayne Clark and Gen. Lucian King Truscott Jr.; and other nations, such as the troops under the British Army’s Field Marshal Earl Alexander of Tunis, adapting to different doctrines, languages, and operational practices.²²

Strategic Vision, Leadership, and Legacy in National Defense by Marshal Mascarenhas de Moraes

Marshal João Batista Mascarenhas de Moraes, commandant of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force, led the Pracinhas (FEB forces) to victory during the Italian Campaign and positively influenced the Brazilian military ethos of today.²³ His ability to navigate challenges, prepare, and command an expeditionary force in a multinational environment left an indelible mark on the Brazilian Army and strategic culture.²⁴

Moraes demonstrated a strategic vision by emphasizing the integration of Brazilian forces into the broader Allied command structure. His emphasis on discipline, training, and adaptability was instrumental in transforming an inexperienced army into a force capable of engaging experienced Axis troops.²⁵

Moraes was entrusted with an extraordinary responsibility: leading Brazil in its first overseas military operation in a modern war. He was responsible for commanding troops in combat and overcoming logistical obstacles to ensure the accomplishment of its missions.²⁶ Under his leadership, the FEB achieved notable victories at Monte Castello, Montese, and Fornovo di Taro, among others, solidifying Brazil’s reputation as a reliable ally during the war (see the table).²⁷

Moraes’s legacy extends to Brazil’s postwar military doctrine and strategic culture. His experiences in Italy underscored the importance of preparedness, interoperability, and the ability to operate in coalition environments. These lessons are valued in military schools and the Brazilian Army’s training exercises.²⁸

Cultural Legacy and National Identity

The FEB’s success raised Brazil’s national identity, fostered by a sense of pride in Brazil’s military participation in World War II. Today, commemorations and educational initiatives have preserved this legacy, ensuring its relevance for future generations.²⁹ The FEB’s history continues to inspire a culture of service and dedication within the armed forces, reinforcing the importance of readiness, professionalism, and adaptability.

The FEB’s contributions to the Italian Campaign have become an enduring symbol of Brazilian perseverance and determination. The “Smoking Snakes” symbolized national pride and significantly impacted relations between Brazil and the United States.³⁰ The Swedish band Sabaton’s song “Smoking Snakes” tells of the Brazilian efforts in Italy and the Mediterranean during World War II.³¹

In 1945 in Montese, Italy, a bloody battle ensued between Brazilian troops and the Germans. Three Brazilian soldiers, Arlindo Lúcio da Silva, Geraldo Baeta da Cruz, and Geraldo Rodrigues de Souza, bravely fought against a much larger and much stronger force of German troops. They fought until they ran out of ammunition and engaged in close combat with their bayonets. They were immediately shot dead, and the Germans buried them and placed a cross with the inscription “Drei Brasilianischen Helden” (Three Brazilian Heroes) on their grave.³²

With the FEB, Brazil also sent two squadrons of the newly created Brazilian Air Force to the European Theater of Operations: the 1st Observation and Liaison Squadron and the 1st Fighter Aviation Group, known for its war cry, “Senta a Pua!”³³ The 1st Fighter Aviation Group, composed of over three hundred men and with forty-two Brazilian Air Force pilots trained by U.S. Air Force instructors in Panama, embarked for Italy on 19 September 1944.³⁴ They arrived in Livorno on 6 October, became part of the U.S. Air Force’s 350th Fighter Group, and began flying on 31 October in Republic P-47D Thunderbolt fighters. Until 4 May 1945 (just short of eight months), they carried out 445 missions, 2,550 individual missions, and 5,465 flight hours in war operations.³⁵ The unit demonstrated remarkable acts of resilience and efficiency, such as on 22 April 1945, when reduced to just twenty-two pilots, they carried out forty-four combat missions.³⁶

Public celebrations reinforce the FEB’s legacy, including “Victory Day,” the National Monument to the Dead of the Second World War in Rio de Janeiro, and the Brazilian Military Votive Monument in Pistoia, Italy.³⁷ This cultural recognition ensures that the lessons of World War II and the history of the Brazilian armed forces remain remembered and valued, strengthening national awareness of security and defense issues. It also ensures that future generations understand the sacrifices made by the FEB to defend freedom and democracy worldwide.³⁸ Sailors, soldiers, and aviators faced the challenge of fighting experienced and determined forces, paying a very high cost in human lives and material resources: thirty-four merchant and warships were sunk, with around 1,450 sailors killed in operations at sea; twenty-two planes were shot down in combat; and approximately five hundred soldiers lost their lives in ground combat.³⁹

Furthermore, efforts to honor the FEB, such as exhibitions hosted by the Brazilian Army and dissemination of various historical materials, play a vital role in educating the public and inspiring future military leaders. Similarly, the FEB Cultural Center House in Rio de Janeiro and the FEB Museum in Maceió, in the Brazilian northeast—which has a historical collection donated by then–Maj. Elza Cansanção Medeiros, a volunteer nurse at the FEB—are examples of this work to promote and preserve the ideals of the FEB.⁴⁰ By keeping the FEB’s memory alive, Brazil strengthens its commitment to the values it defended and ensures its lessons remain relevant to contemporary national security and defense challenges.

The FEB’s legacy is reflected in contemporary military education. Brazilian officers studying at institutions such as the Brazilian Army’s Escola de Aperfeiçoamento de Oficiais (ESAO, or Officer’s Training School) are routinely exposed to the FEB’s historical importance as a model of adaptability, innovation, and effective leadership.⁴¹ This cultural foundation has practical applications as seen in Brazil’s leadership roles in humanitarian assistance missions, where historical precedents influence modern operational planning.

This legacy continues to influence Brazil’s approach to military operations domestically. For example, the Brazilian military’s role in humanitarian and disaster response missions reflects the FEB’s tradition of balancing crisis preparedness with an unconditional commitment to supporting the population and respecting enemies.⁴² In September 2023, an extratropical cyclone struck southern Brazil, and the Brazilian Army assisted the population through Operation Taquari.⁴³ The army, which is prepared to ensure national sovereignty and protect the population during emergencies, helps promote synergy between the armed forces and society.

In this sense, the FEB’s conduct during the Italian Campaign emphasized the importance of professionalism and ethical behavior in military operations. Brazilian troops have earned the respect of local populations in Italy for their friendly and cordial treatment and of the Germans for their unconditional respect for international laws and agreements regarding prisoners of war.⁴⁴

Defense Industrialization

The FEB’s participation highlighted the benefits and challenges of international cooperation. While Brazil’s alignment with the Allies strengthened its global position, it also underscored the importance of strategic autonomy. Brazil’s postwar defense policy sought to balance these two imperatives, emphasizing self-sufficiency while maintaining strong international partnerships. In this sense, the need to equip the FEB during the war highlighted Brazil’s international dependence. This experience catalyzed the development of national defense industries, such as the aerospace corporation Embraer, in the postwar period.⁴⁵

The FEB’s participation reinforces the need for a robust defense industrial base to support national security and, if necessary, expeditionary missions to preserve national interests. This legacy continues to influence Brazil’s investments in science, technology, research, and development, particularly in strategic projects for the armed forces.⁴⁶ Brazil’s defense industrial base generates around 2.9 million direct and indirect jobs and stimulates the sale of defense products to around one hundred countries.⁴⁷

World War II highlighted the strategic importance of the South Atlantic as a central region for Brazil’s contemporary defense focus.⁴⁸ The Brazilian Navy’s South Atlantic operations are a result of lessons learned about the strategic importance of maritime security. Protecting maritime resources, trade routes, and lines of communication remains a fundamental priority for Brazil’s national interests.

The FEB’s wartime legacy continues to influence contemporary defense industrial policies, particularly in efforts to achieve strategic autonomy. In recent years, Brazil has invested in naval modernization through projects such as developing a nuclear-powered submarine as part of PROSUB (Submarine Development Program).⁴⁹ This project is aligned with Brazil’s broader strategy of protecting its extensive maritime resources in the South Atlantic, including its pre-salt oil reserves and the biodiversity of the Blue Amazon coastal region.⁵⁰

Likewise, Brazil has increased its strategic autonomy by generating advanced military technology for the Army through the Guarani armored vehicle while contributing to global security through defense exports.⁵¹ Similarly, Embraer has manufactured modern aircraft such as the KC-390 Millennium, a transport aircraft used by the Air Force and exported to other countries.⁵²

Thus, the Navy, Army, and Air Force are being modernized, with the commitment to guaranteeing Brazil’s sovereignty, contributing to national development, serving the Brazilian population in times of calamity, and permanently being prepared to act under the flag of international organizations in compliance with the agreements to which the country is a signatory.⁵³

Strategic Engagement

The FEB’s contribution to the Allied victory influenced Brazil’s participation in founding the United Nations and its subsequent involvement in several peacekeeping operations. Brazil participated in forty-two of the seventy-one UN peacekeeping operations with military observers, staff officers, police officers, troops, vehicles, aircraft, and ships.⁵⁴ The work of more than thirty-seven thousand blue berets from the Brazilian armed forces in the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti from 2004 to 2017 exemplifies Brazil’s commitment to world peace.⁵⁵

Similarly, the work of more than 3,600 Brazilian Navy personnel in the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon between 2011 and 2021 highlights the importance of the lessons learned during World War II about alliance building and interoperability.⁵⁶

From 2013 to 2016, and from 2018 onward, Brazil led the military component of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a Brazilian Army general as force commander. This confirms the aptitude of the Brazilian military to lead and conduct efforts for world peace, operating in complex and unstable environments.⁵⁷

As in World War II, volunteer nurses from the FEB performed a unique service. Today, the growing participation of Brazilian women filling numerous roles in peacekeeping missions reflects the alignment with the UN’s Women, Peace, and Security agenda.⁵⁸

Finally, the legacy of the FEB reinforced Brazil’s commitment to multilateralism and regional stability through its participation in the Organization of American States and the value of its fundamental pillars: democracy, human rights, security, and development.⁵⁹

Contemporary Relevance

The legacy of FEB cooperation is experienced by the armed forces today. The United States and Brazil have participated in army-to-army staff talks, strengthening historic ties of respect and professionalism.⁶⁰ In 2020, the commander of U.S. Army South said,

The Brazilian Army is one of our most valued and strategic partners, not only in the Western Hemisphere but globally. Our relationship dates back to World War II, when the “Smoking Snakes” fought alongside U.S. Army soldiers on the battlefields of Europe, and continues to endure today. These team discussions set the stage for the continued growth of this relationship in the future.⁶¹

The cooperation between the United States and Brazil in the Italian Campaign during World War II has also helped promote dialogue between the military schools of the two countries—specifically, the U.S. Army War College, the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, and the Brazilian Army Command and General Staff College—through a lecture series. The annual U.S.-Brazil army-to-army staff talks coordinated the General Mark Clark-Marshal Mascarenhas de Moraes lecture series as an agreed-upon action.⁶²

The army staff talks program also promotes efforts to develop professional partnerships and increase interaction between the armies. One of the significant agreements between the two armies included the Combined Operation and Rotation Exercise (CORE) until 2028.⁶³ The first iteration took place in Brazil in 2021, and the second was at the Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) in Fort Polk, Louisiana, in 2022—the first time a South American army conducted an exercise at JRTC. The third CORE, in 2023, was in the Amazon rainforest near the border between Brazil and French Guiana. In 2024, troops from the Brazilian Army participated again in exercises in the United States.⁶⁴ The combined exercises promote military diplomacy with interoperability, aiming to benefit the security and collective defense of the American continents.⁶⁵

Another contemporary aspect that reinforces the relationship between the United States and Brazil is Washington’s designation of Brazil as a “major non-NATO ally” (MNNA) in 2019.⁶⁶ This status grants foreign partners significant benefits and privileges in security and defense cooperation. It also allows designated states more substantial access to U.S. military, economic, and technological equipment, supporting Brazil’s interest in addressing its traditional security threats. MNNA status can increase the country’s interoperability with the United States and familiarize its armed forces with U.S. military doctrine and command through joint training, high-level interactions, equipment transfers, and procurement.⁶⁷

Likewise, during the fourth annual U.S.-Brazil Strategic Defense Talks, held in December 2021, U.S. and Brazilian officials identified steps to deepen cooperation in cyberspace, research, and development, essential for the Brazilian Army to fulfill its constitutional missions today.⁶⁸ Eighty years after the deployment of the FEB in Italy, its lessons continue to shape the national defense agenda in the face of emerging challenges such as climate change, transnational crime, and cybersecurity threats.⁶⁹ The above examples reinforce the two-hundred-year strategic partnership between the United States and Brazil since the United States recognized Brazil’s independence on 26 May 1824.⁷⁰

Cybersecurity, for example, has become a critical focus area for Brazil’s Ministry of Defense. Building on the principles of strategic autonomy established after World War II, Brazil has prioritized the development of cybersecurity capabilities, including creating the Cyber Defense Command to protect its critical infrastructure. In 2024, the Brazilian Ministry of Defense, through the Cyber Defense Command, coordinated Exercise Cyber Guardian 6.0, which represents the largest cyber exercise in the Southern Hemisphere. The exercise brought together representatives from several critical national infrastructure sectors in a coordinated effort to face the growing threats in the digital domain. The cyber simulation exercise strengthened the armed forces’ operational capacity and promoted unprecedented collaboration among the federal public administration, the private sector, academia, and civil society. With more than seven hundred participants and one hundred organizations involved, the exercise demonstrated Brazil’s commitment to increasing its cyber resilience. Exercise Cyber Guardian 6.0, which had representatives from more than thirty countries, reinforced the preparedness of the various agencies of critical sectors in the cyber field, opening doors for future collaboration.⁷¹ These initiatives underscore the enduring relevance of the FEB’s indirect influence in fostering innovation and strategic foresight.

An example of space dominance is the development of the Geostationary Defense and Strategic Communications Satellite. This project, initiated in partnership with Embraer and Brazilian telecommunications company Telebras, ensures secure military communications and increases Brazil’s ability to defend its sovereignty in cyberspace.⁷² Thus, these initiatives reflect the long-term influence of the FEB’s experiences, emphasizing the importance of technological self-sufficiency in safeguarding national security.

Conclusion

The Brazilian Expeditionary Force’s participation in World War II is a milestone in the history of the Brazilian armed forces. The FEB embodies a legacy of glory, sacrifice, and patriotism that inspires the nation and shapes the national defense agenda. The deeds of these soldiers in Italy are more than just historical milestones, they are enduring symbols of the values of freedom and dedication to the world.

In short, the FEB’s war experience directly influence the professionalization of the Brazilian armed forces. Likewise, the lessons of the FEB indirectly influence the geopolitical role, strategic culture, defense industrialization, and international relationships of the national armed forces.

The heroes of the FEB fought selflessly in the face of immeasurable adversity, leaving an indelible mark on Brazil and its armed forces. Brazil must ensure that the sacrifices of these FEB heroes are never forgotten. The FEB’s legacy of courage and commitment inspires the nation. Its actions exemplify the value of service to one’s country and devotion to democratic principles, offering timeless lessons for Brazil’s security and defense policies.

In reflecting on the FEB’s legacy, Brazil pays tribute to the heroes who defended national interests in the Italian Theater of Operations and reaffirms its gratitude to those who continue to carry their memories forward. In doing so, Brazil preserves an essential chapter of history and the ideals that helped define the nation’s role in the world—a commitment to freedom, democracy, and the unwavering defense of world peace.

Finally, today’s Brazilian armed forces are the legitimate heirs of the FEB’s traditions. They are proud to continue to fulfill their duties, faithful to their traditions, and aware of their high responsibility as state institutions. Thus, the FEB’s sacrifices may inspire future generations to defend national values with the same courage and determination as Brazil’s beloved “Pracinhas.”

---

Notes

• Epigraph. João Baptista Mascarenhas de Moraes, “Letter from General Truscott Concerning the FEB’s Departure for Brazil [on 8 July 1945],” The Brazilian Expeditionary Force by Its Commander (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966), 220.

1. Robert Reynolds, “Brazil’s Overseas Military Operations,” Military Review 46, no. 11 (November 1966): 87–88, https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p124201coll1/id/635/rec/5.
2. Cláudio Skora Rosty and Édson Skora Rosty, As vitórias da FEB: do vale do rio Serchio ao vale do rio Po [The victories of the FEB: From the Serchio River Valley to the Po River Valley], trans. Cristiane de Castro (Army Library, Rio de Janeiro, 2022), 50–153, https://lojavirtual.bibliex.eb.mil.br/product/vitorias_da_feb/.
3. Reynolds, “Brazil’s Overseas Military Operations,” 87–88. On 22 August 1942, Brazil declared war against the Axis. By a War Ministry decree in August 1943, Gen. Eurico Gaspar Dutra created the FEB, and by mid-1944, the FEB was combat ready.
4. Derreck T. Calkins, “A Military Force on a Political Mission: The Brazilian Expeditionary Force in World War II” (master’s thesis, Georgia Southern University, 2011), 71–109, https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/etd/600.
5. Política Nacional de Defesa (PND) [National defense policy] (Ministério da Defesa [Ministry of defense], 2013), 1–10.
6. Frank D. McCann, The Brazilian-American Alliance, 1937–1945 (Princeton University Press, 1973), 4, 59–71, 119–23, 259, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316521912_The_Brazilian-American_Alliance_1937-1945.
7. Stanley E. Hilton, “Brazilian Diplomacy and the Washington-Rio de Janeiro ‘Axis’ During the World War II Era,” Hispanic American Historical Review 59, no. 2 (1979): 220.
8. Calkins, “A Military Force on a Political Mission,” 17–18, 109–10.
9. Cesar C. Maximiano and Ricardo Bonalume Neto, Brazilian Expeditionary Force in World War II (Osprey Publishing, 2011), 11–18.
10. Calkins, “A Military Force on a Political Mission,” 104–9.
11. Gustavo T. Nakashima, “The 10th Mountain Division and the 1st Brazilian Expeditionary Infantry Division during Operation Encore, 1945,” Infantry 111, no. 2 (Summer 2022): 49–52, https://www.dvidshub.net/publication/issues/64405.
12. Rosty and Rosty, As vitórias da FEB, 29–32.
13. Constituiҫão Federal [C.F.] [Constitution] art. 142 (Braz.).
14. Brazilian Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Defense Strategic Projects (Ministry of Defense, February 2023), 7–37, https://www.gov.br/defesa/pt-br/assuntos/industria-de-defesa/arquivos/cartilha-projetos-estrategicos-da-defesa/cartilha_projetos-estrategicos_ing_final_baixa.pdf.
15. Brazilian Ministry of Defense, Defense White Paper (Ministry of Defense, 2012), 71, 193–209, https://www.gov.br/defesa/pt-br/arquivos/ajuste-01/estado_e_defesa/livro_branco/Versao2012dolivroLBDNemingles.pdf.
16. Nakashima, “The 10th Mountain Division and the 1st Brazilian Expeditionary Infantry Division,” 50–51.
17. Revista a Defesa [Defense magazine], no. 3 (December 2023): 18–24, 26, 34–36, https://www.gov.br/defesa/pt-br/acesso-a-informacao/publicacoes/revista-a-defesa.
18. Rosty and Rosty, As vitórias da FEB, 32–47.
19. “History,” Brazilian Army Command and General Staff School, last updated 13 June 2019, https://www.eceme.eb.mil.br/en/historic-m-en.
20. “80 Anos do Início das Operações da FEB no Teatro de Operações Europeu” [80 years since the beginning of FEB operations in the European theater of operations], PADECEME 20, no. 33 (2024); André Luiz dos Santos Franco, A FEB na Itália: Honra e Glória: Monumentos, Lugares e Memória [The FEB in Italy: honor and glory: Monuments, places, and memory] (Army Attachment to the Diplomatic Representation of Brazil in the Italian Republic [ADIEx] Itália, 21 February 2021), 5, https://adiexitalia.org/index.php/pt/roteiro-historico-da-feb; Brazilian Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Defense Strategic Projects, 1–10; Revista a Defesa, 1–45.
21. Rosty and Rosty, As vitórias da FEB, 149; Brazilian Army Command and General Staff School, “History.”
22. Calkins, “A Military Force on a Political Mission,” 14–15, 88; Carson Teuscher, “Skis, Samba, and Smoking Snakes: Remembering an Unlikely World War II Partnership,” Medium, 1 November 2022, https://medium.com/@carson.teuscher/skis-samba-and-smoking-snakes-remembering-an-unlikely-world-war-ii-partnership-be744ccacc95.
23. “Mascarenhas de Morais, João Batista,” Generals.dk, accessed 15 May 2025, https://generals.dk/general/Mascarenhas_de_Morais/Jo%C3%A3o_Batista/Brazil.html. Mascarenhas de Moraes began his participation in World War II as major general. After World War II, he was promoted to marshal in Brazil; Franco, A FEB na Itália, 10. FEB soldiers are also sometimes informally called “febianos,” “expeditionaries,” or “Ex-WORLD WAR II combatants.”
24. Paulo Cesar de Castro, “Mascarenhas, o Líder da Vitória” [Mascarenhas: The leader of victory], Military Review [Portuguese ed.] 70, no. 6 (November-December 2015): 10–17, https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/military-review/Archives/Portuguese/MilitaryReview_20151231_art005POR.pdf.
25. Moraes, The Brazilian Expeditionary Force by Its Commander, 279.
26. Reynolds, “Brazil’s Overseas Military Operations,” 85–91.
27. Data for the table is from Moraes, The Brazilian Expeditionary Force; Reynolds, “Brazil’s Overseas Military Operations”; Franco, A FEB na Itália; Rosty and Rosty, As vitórias da FEB, 2022; Teuscher, “Skis, Samba, and Smoking Snakes.”
28. McCann, The Brazilian-American Alliance, 210; Nakashima, “The 10th Mountain Division and the 1st Brazilian Expeditionary Infantry Division,” 52.
29. “Exército Brasiliero” [Brazilian army], Ministério da Defesa, archived 30 December 2024 at https://web.archive.org/web/20241230120143/https://www.eb.mil.br/web/campanhas/feb/feb-noticias.
30. Calkins, “A Military Force on a Political Mission,” 56, 111.
31. “The Brazilian Expeditionary Force in the Battle of Monte Castello,” Government of Brazil, 21 February 2022, https://www.gov.br/en/government-of-brazil/latest-news/2022/the-brazilian-expeditionary-force-in-the-battle-of-monte-castello.
32. “Smoking Snakes: Historic Fact,” Sabaton, accessed 15 May 2025, https://www.sabaton.net/discography/heroes/smoking-snakes/.
33. “Senta a Pua!” loosely translates “to launch yourself at the enemy with determination and destroy them.” “Senta a Pua!,” laststandonzombieisland, 9 August 2018, https://laststandonzombieisland.com/2018/08/09/senta-a-pua/.
34. On 20 January 1941, President Getúlio Vargas sanctioned decree-law nº 2,961, creating the Ministry of Aeronautics. See “Senta a Púa! Conheça a História da Força Aérea Brasileira na Segunda Guerra” [Sit down! Learn the history of the Brazilian Air Force in World War II], Força Aérea Brasileira, 16 April 2019, https://www.fab.mil.br/noticias/mostra/33818.
35. Ricardo Lavecchia, “Os 33 do Pacífico – Como A FAB quase lutou contra os Japoneses” [The 33 of the Pacific – How the FEB almost fought the Japanese], Ecos da Segunda Guerra [Echoes of the Second World War], 18 May 2021, https://segundaguerra.org/os-33-do-pacifico-como-a-fab-quase-lutou-contra-os-japoneses/.
36. Lavecchia, “Os 33 do Pacífico.”
37. José Mucio Monteiro, “8 de Maio - Dia da Vitória [May 8 - Victory Day], Ministério da Defesa, 8 May 2024, https://www.gov.br/defesa/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/noticias/8-de-maio-dia-da-vitoria; “Monument to the Dead of the World War II,” AlluringWorld, accessed 15 May 2025, https://www.alluringworld.com/monument-to-the-dead-of-world-war-ii/; Rosty and Rosty, As vitórias da FEB, 156.
38. “80 Anos da Força Expedicionária Brasileira – Heróis Sempre Lembrados” [80 years of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force: Heroes always remembered], Verde-Oliva 52, no. 267 (October 2024): 8–9, https://www.calameo.com/exercito-brasileiro/read/0012382066861c2f5682a.
39. Monteiro, “8 de Maio.”
40. “Comunicados, Artigos & Publicações” [Press releases, articles and publications], House of FEB Cultural Center, accessed 16 May 2025, https://www.casadafeb.com/; “Museu da 2ª Guerra Mundial” [World War II museum], 59th Motorized Infantry Battalion, archived 7 October 2024 at https://web.archive.org/web/20241007101809/https://59bimtz.eb.mil.br/index.php/museu-da-2-guerra.
41. Brazil, Brazilian Army Historical Archive, online at https://www.ahex.eb.mil.br/colecao-particular-nilton-lago-ilhas-fontes/8-enfermeiras-na-ii-guerra-mundial/detail/662-enfermeiras-na-ii-guerra-mundial, accessed December 15, 2024; “Palestra do Gen Div Rosty sobre a Infantaria na FEB” [Lecture by Lt. Gen Rosty on the infantry at FEB], Escola de Aperfeiçoamento de Oficiais, accessed 16 May 2025, https://www.esao.eb.mil.br/noticiario/1584-palestra-do-gen-div-rosty-sobre-a-infantaria-na-feb.
42. “80 Anos da Força Expedicionária Brasileira,” 50–51.
43. Revista a Defesa, 64.
44. “80 Anos da Força Expedicionária Brasileira,” 44–45.
45. “History of Embraer,” Embraer, accessed 16 May 2025, https://historicalcenter.embraer.com/global/en/history.
46. Revista a Defesa, 70–80.
47. “Ministro da Defesa destaca crescimento da Indústria de Defesa e Segurança durante a 8ª Mostra BID Brasil” [Defense minister highlights growth of the defense and security industry during the 8th BID Brazil Exhibition], Ministério da Defesa, 12 March 2024, https://www.gov.br/defesa/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/noticias/ministro-da-defesa-destaca-crescimento-da-industria-de-defesa-e-seguranca-durante-a-8a-mostra-bid-brasil.
48. McCann, The Brazilian-American Alliance, 6, 84–87.
49. Brazilian Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Defense Strategic Projects, 16–17.
50. Brazilian Ministry of Defense, Defense White Paper, 46–47.
51. Marcelo Barros, “Army Strategic Programs Modernize Defense and Generate Jobs,” Defense in Focus, 5 December 2024, https://www.defesaemfoco.com.br/programas-estrategicos-do-exercito-modernizam-defesa-e-geram-empregos/.
52. Embraer, “History of Embraer.”
53. Monteiro, “8 de Maio.”
54. José Mucio Monteiro, “Ordem do Dia Alusiva ao Dia Internacional dos Peacekeepers” [Agenda for International Peacekeepers Day], Ministério da Defesa, 29 May 2023, https://www.gov.br/defesa/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/noticias/ordem-do-dia-alusiva-ao-dia-internacional-dos-peacekeepers.
55. Brazilian Ministry of Defense, Defense White Paper, 163–66.
56. Brazilian Ministry of Defense, Defense White Paper, 163, 165–66; Teuscher, “Skis, Samba, and Smoking Snakes.”
57. Monteiro, “Ordem do Dia Alusiva ao Dia Internacional dos Peacekeepers.”
58. Monteiro, “Ordem do Dia Alusiva ao Dia Internacional dos Peacekeepers.”
59. “Who We Are,” Organization of American States, accessed 19 May 2025, https://www.oas.org/en/about/who_we_are.asp.
60. “Comandante de Operações Terrestres Acompanha Exercício nos EUA” [Ground operations commander monitors exercise in the US], Ministério da Defesa, last updated 27 August 2024, https://www.eb.mil.br/web/noticias/w/comandante-de-operacoes-terrestres-acompanha-operacao-nos-eua.
61. “36th Annual U.S.-Brazil Army-to-Army Staff Talks Secure Readiness, Friendship Between Two Partners,” U.S. Army, 26 October 2020, https://www.army.mil/article/240279/36th_annual_us_brazil_army_to_army_staff_talks_secure_readiness_friendship_between_two_partners.
62. “Pereira Highlights Need for International Relationships,” U.S. Army War College Archives, 13 September 2011, https://www.armywarcollege.edu/news/Archives/11659.pdf.
63. Ministério da Defesa, “Comandante de Operações Terrestres Acompanha Exercício nos EUA.”
64. Ministério da Defesa, “Comandante de Operações Terrestres Acompanha Exercício nos EUA.”
65. “U.S. Army South Exercise: Southern Vanguard 24,” U.S. Army, 30 December 2024, https://www.army.mil/article/282323/u_s_army_south_exercise_southern_vanguard_24. The Brazilian Army uses the name Combined Operations and Rotations Exercise (CORE 21), and the U.S. Army South uses the name Southern Vanguard (ExSV22). Likewise, CORE 23 corresponds to ExSV24.
66. Ryan C. Berg et al., “The Future of U.S.-Brazil Security Cooperation: Opportunities Presented by Brazil’s Major Non-NATO Ally Status,” Center for Strategic and International Studies, 15 July 2022, https://www.csis.org/analysis/future-us-brazil-security-cooperation-opportunities-presented-brazils-major-non-nato-ally.
67. Berg et al., “The Future of U.S.-Brazil Security Cooperation.”
68. Peter J. Meyer, Brazil: Background and U.S. Relations (Congressional Research Service, 10 May 2022), 18, https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R46236.
69. Steven Heffington, Adam Oler, and David Tretler, A National Security Strategy Primer (National Defense University Press, 2021), 12–13, https://nwc.ndu.edu/Portals/71/Documents/Publications/NWC-Primer-FINAL_for%20Web.pdf?ver=HOH30gam-KOdUOM2RFoHRA%3D%3D.
70. “Bicentennial of U.S.-Brazil Bilateral Relations,” U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Brazil, accessed 19 May 2025, https://br.usembassy.gov/bicentennial-of-u-s-brazil-bilateral-relations/.
71. “Comando Conjunto na Defesa Cibernética” [Joint command in cyber defense], Ministério da Defesa, 26 April 2017, https://www.gov.br/defesa/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/noticias/ultimas-noticias/comando-conjunto-na-defesa-cibernetica.
72. Embraer, “History of Embraer”; “Conheça o SGDC” [Discover SGDC], Telebras, accessed 19 May 2025, https://www.telebras.com.br/telebras-sat/conheca-o-sgdc/.

 

Back to Top